{"id":4452,"date":"2025-12-24T05:03:11","date_gmt":"2025-12-24T05:03:11","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/?p=4452"},"modified":"2025-12-24T05:03:12","modified_gmt":"2025-12-24T05:03:12","slug":"ethnic-and-religious-minorities-in-myanmar-history-distortion-and-the-call-for-equal-citizenship","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/2025\/12\/24\/ethnic-and-religious-minorities-in-myanmar-history-distortion-and-the-call-for-equal-citizenship\/","title":{"rendered":"Ethnic and Religious Minorities in Myanmar: History, Distortion, and the Call for Equal Citizenship"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Let all the different flowers blossom in Myanmar\u2019s garden.<\/strong>
Only then can the nation heal, and only then can a true union be rebuilt.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ethnic minorities<\/strong> and religious minorities<\/strong> are communities numerically smaller than the majority population, distinguished by their unique cultural, linguistic, ethnic, or religious identities. In many societies, these identities overlap. While diversity enriches a nation, minorities often face discrimination, marginalization, and systematic exclusion, especially when political power is monopolized by a dominant group.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Understanding Minority Groups<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

A minority group<\/strong> is generally defined as a population segment that:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \n
  • Is numerically inferior to the rest of the population,<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  • Possesses distinct ethnic, religious, linguistic, or cultural characteristics,<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  • Demonstrates a sense of solidarity to preserve these identities,<\/li>\n\n\n\n
  • And typically lacks political or social power relative to the majority.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

    An ethnic minority<\/strong> is identified by shared ancestry, culture, language, or physical traits.
    A religious minority<\/strong> is defined by beliefs and practices differing from those of the majority population.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    In many countries\u2014including Myanmar\u2014these two categories frequently intersect, compounding vulnerability.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Muslims of Myanmar: A Historical Perspective<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

    1. Before the Military Era: No \u201c135 Ethnic Groups\u201d<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

    Contrary to popular belief, there was no such thing as an official list of \u201c135 ethnic groups\u201d<\/strong> in pre-independence Burma or in the early post-independence period.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    2. British Colonial Records: Languages, Not \u201cRaces\u201d<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

    British colonial censuses documented languages spoken<\/strong>, not \u201cnational races\u201d or rigid ethnic categories:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      \n
    • The 1911 Census<\/strong> recorded 65 languages<\/strong>, both indigenous and foreign.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
    • The 1931 Census<\/strong> expanded this to 135 languages<\/strong>, including Chinese, Indian, and other migrant languages.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

      These figures were never intended<\/strong> to represent 135 ethnic groups.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

      3. Post-Independence Governments: No Fixed Ethnic List<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

      From independence in 1948 through:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        \n
      • The AFPFL governments,<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      • The early BSPP period,<\/li>\n\n\n\n
      • And the initial years of General Ne Win\u2019s rule,<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

        there was no official state-endorsed list<\/strong> of ethnic groups.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

        4. The First Official List: 144 Ethnic Groups (1972)<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

        The first formal ethnic classification<\/strong> appeared on 9 December 1972<\/strong>, issued by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs.
        This list officially recognized 144 ethnic groups<\/strong>, including several Muslim communities acknowledged as indigenous peoples of Myanmar<\/strong>, such as:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          \n
        • Bamar Muslims (Pathi)<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        • Rohingya<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        • Mye Du \/ Myedu<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        • Pashu \/ Malay<\/li>\n\n\n\n
        • Panthay (Chinese Muslims)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

          These groups were explicitly included<\/strong> as legitimate ethnic nationalities.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

          5. From 144 to 135: Political Engineering, Not Anthropology<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

          During the later BSPP period and especially under SLORC, this inclusive list was politically altered<\/strong>:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

            \n
          • Many Muslim ethnic groups were removed<\/strong>.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
          • Meanwhile, some communities previously classified as Chinese or Indian (Kalar)<\/strong>\u2014such as Kokang and Daingnet\u2014were reintroduced<\/strong> under new ethnic labels.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

            On 5 July 1989<\/strong>, under martial law, Vice-Senior General Saw Maung proclaimed the now-famous \u201c135 ethnic groups\u201d<\/strong> in a three-hour speech.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

            This list was not the product of anthropology, history, or consensus<\/strong>, but of authoritarian decree.
            It would be more accurate to call it \u201cthe Martial Law 135.\u201d<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

            From Panglong\u2019s Dream to a National Nightmare<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

            On 12 February 1947<\/strong>, the ethnic groups of Burma signed the Panglong Agreement<\/strong>, envisioning a voluntary Union based on equality and mutual respect<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

            Nearly 80 years later<\/strong>, that dream has deteriorated into a tragic reality:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

              \n
            • Ethnic minorities remain denied genuine self-determination.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
            • Religious minorities and mixed-heritage citizens face systemic discrimination.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
            • Many communities live as internal exiles<\/strong>\u2014or refugees beyond Myanmar\u2019s borders.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

              The chains of segregation and the manacles of exclusion still cripple the lives of countless citizens, under successive military regimes and even today.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

              Our Demand<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

              We therefore call for:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

              1. A Democratic Federal Union of Myanmar<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

              A union that guarantees equal rights for all citizens<\/strong>, regardless of ethnicity, religion, or ancestry.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

              2. Restoration of Historical Recognition<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

              The reinstatement of Muslims of Myanmar as ethnic minorities<\/strong>, based on the original 1972 list of 144 ethnic groups<\/strong>, including:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                \n
              • Bamar Muslims (Pathi)<\/li>\n\n\n\n
              • Rohingya<\/li>\n\n\n\n
              • Mye Du \/ Myedu<\/li>\n\n\n\n
              • Pashu \/ Malay<\/li>\n\n\n\n
              • Panthay (Chinese Muslims)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

                These communities were\u2014and are\u2014part of Myanmar\u2019s indigenous fabric.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                Let All Flowers Bloom<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

                William Shakespeare wrote:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                \u201cA rose by any other name would smell as sweet.\u201d<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

                Yet in Myanmar, names\u2014and labels\u2014have been used to dehumanize.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                General Ne Win once referred to mixed-heritage people with the derogatory phrase \u201cgrass growing between bricks\u201d<\/strong> (\u1021\u102f\u1010\u103a\u1000\u103c\u102c\u1038\u1019\u103c\u1000\u103a\u1015\u1031\u102b\u1000\u103a<\/em>).
                Even if we are called grass instead of flowers\u2014so what?
                Grass survives. Grass endures. Grass grows even in the harshest ground.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                Myanmar literature itself reminds us of this truth:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  \n
                • In Zaw Gyi\u2019s poem<\/strong>, the humble Beda flower survives against nature\u2019s cruelty.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
                • In Min Thu Wun\u2019s poetry<\/strong>, the modest kha-yae<\/em> flower is rejected for an expensive rose\u2014yet its worth remains unchanged.<\/li>\n\n\n\n
                • The hibiscus<\/strong>, once looked down upon in Myanmar, is honored as a national flower in Malaysia and Korea.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

                  Value is not decided by prejudice.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                  \n\n\n\n

                  A Final Appeal<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

                  I respectfully appeal to:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

                    \n
                  • The Myanmar junta,<\/li>\n\n\n\n
                  • Opposition leaders of the Spring Revolution,<\/li>\n\n\n\n
                  • And all the people of Myanmar,<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n

                    Let all the different flowers blossom in Myanmar\u2019s garden.<\/strong>
                    Only then can the nation heal, and only then can a true union be rebuilt.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

                    Let all the different flowers blossom in Myanmar\u2019s garden.Only then can the nation heal, and only then can a true union be rebuilt. Ethnic minorities and religious minorities are communities numerically smaller than the majority population, distinguished by their unique cultural, linguistic, ethnic, or religious identities. In many societies, these identities overlap. While diversity enriches […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":4453,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[20,7,6,127,11,16,27,123],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-4452","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-anti-racism","category-articles","category-history","category-islam-hope-allah-swt","category-myanmar-muslims-history","category-opinion","category-poem","category-story"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4452","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4452"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4452\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4454,"href":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4452\/revisions\/4454"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/4453"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4452"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=4452"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/myanmarmuslim.news\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=4452"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}