CREDIT: Wikipedia article: Background Cambodian–Thai border dispute

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The Cambodian–Thai border dispute is a territorial dispute between Cambodia and Thailand over certain areas of their shared border. It began in the 1950s, shortly after Cambodia’s independence from France, and first centred on ownership of the temple of Preah Vihear. The case was brought to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), who decided in 1962 in favour of Cambodia. The issue became dormant over the following decades as Cambodia fell into civil war, but remained unresolved as sections of the countries’ borders were never jointly demarcated. The dispute erupted into open conflict in 2008, following Cambodia’s nomination of the temple as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and Thai protesters attacking their government over the issue. The clashes led to a request for clarification from the ICJ, which was decided in 2013. During this round of conflict, disputes also arose over other overlapping border areas, including those around the ancient Khmer temples of Prasat Ta Muen Thom and Prasat Ta Krabey. The conflict subsided for over a decade until it erupted again in 2025, with the worst fighting since the dispute began.

The dispute mostly stems from the Franco-Siamese treaties of 1904 and 1907, which defined the final boundary between Siam (as Thailand was then known) and French Indochina, the borders of which were inherited by Cambodia. While the treaty defined the relevant segment of the boundary along the watershed line of the Dangrek Mountains, demarcation of the border by French surveyors produced maps that deviated from the line in the now-disputed areas, including around the Preah Vihear temple. While Thailand argued at the ICJ that it never approved the maps and that the temple’s location on a cliff, more accessible from the Thai side, indicated that it was on Thai territory, the ICJ decided in favour of Cambodia largely based on the fact that Siam never officially protested the map or claimed ownership of the temple while it was under French control. Cambodia also views itself as having rightful claims to the temples due to closer cultural affinity as successor to the Khmer Empire.^[1]

The two countries also have a large area of overlapping maritime claims resulting from continental shelf (exclusive economic zone) claims announced by Cambodia in 1972 and Thailand in 1973. A memorandum of understanding signed in 2001 agreed to the joint development of the disputed area south of the 11th parallel north, though there has been little progress since.

Background

At its greatest extent around the 11th–13th centuries, the influence of the Khmer Empire extended across a large area of Mainland Southeast Asia, and many Angkor-era monuments are found throughout the present-day areas of not only Cambodia, but also Thailand and Laos. By the late 19th century, when the French established a protectorate over Cambodia, most of the present Cambodian–Thai border areas were under the control of Siam. As a result of the Franco-Siamese crisis of 1893, Siam was forced to cede extensive territorial claims over its Lao and Cambodian tributaries to French Indochina. Further subsequent negotiations led to the Franco-Siamese treaty of 1904, in which Siam ceded further areas on the right bank of the Mekong River, and the treaty of 1907, which ceded the areas of Inner Cambodia, including the ancient Khmer capital of Angkor. These treaties established the boundary between Siam and French Indochina, the latter of whose borders with Thailand were inherited by Cambodia and Laos when they gained independence in 1954.

Among the boundaries established by the treaties, the border between what is now northern Cambodia (including Oddar Meanchey and Preah Vihear provinces) and Thailand’s Isan region (Buri Ram, Surin, Sisaket, and Ubon Ratchathani provinces) was defined along the watershed line of the Dangrek Mountains. The treaties also stipulated that the boundary be demarcated by a mixed commission composed of Thai and French officials. Two commissions were accordingly set up in accordance with each of the treaties, overseeing work performed by French surveyors. The maps resulting from the surveys were printed and published in Paris, and submitted to the two governments. It was later found that the maps contained significant deviations from the watershed line in several areas, including those of the now-disputed temples, especially Preah Vihear.^[2] However, the Thai government did not dispute the maps at the time, and recently revealed documents indicate that, as early as 1911, the government was aware that the applicable map showed the Preah Vihear temple as being located within Cambodia.^[3].

During World War II, Thailand under the nationalist government of Plaek Phibunsongkhram allied with Japan and invaded French Indochina in 1940 to pursue its irridentist pan-Thai ideology and reclaim what it regarded as Thailand’s lost territories. Thailand briefly annexed parts of the areas ceded in 1904 and 1907, but had to relinquish the claims when the war ended with the defeat of Japan.^[4][5]

Temple of Preah Vihear case

Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand)
Court	International Court of Justice
Decided	15 June 1962
Case history
Subsequent action	Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand) (Cambodia v. Thailand)
Case opinions
The Temple is situated on Cambodian territory; Thailand is under an obligation to withdraw any military or police force stationed there and to restore to Cambodia any objects removed from the ruins since 1954.

The dispute arose following Thai authorities’ stationing of troops since 1954 at the Preah Vihear Temple (known in Thai as Phra Wihan), in a disputed area between Preah Vihear Province of Cambodia and Sisaket Province of Thailand. Cambodia complained to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in 1959, and it judged in 1962 that the temple is situated in Cambodian territory.

The dispute stemmed from the different maps each party used in national delimitation. France, who was the protector of Cambodia at the time, agreed with Siam in Franco-Siamese boundary treaty of 1904. The Mixed Commission was set up in 1905, and it was to carry out delimitation between Siam and Cambodia. Cambodia used the map published by French geographers in 1907 (called “Annex I map”) which showed the Temple in Cambodian territory. While Thailand used the provisions of the treaty of 1904 which reads:

The frontier between Siam and Cambodia starts, on the left shore of the Great Lake, from the mouth of the river Stung Roluos, it follows the parallel from that point easterly direction until it meets the river Prek Kompong Tiam, then, turning northwards, it merges with the meridian from that meeting-point as far as the Pnom Dang Rek mountain chain. From there it follows the watershed between the basins of Nam Sen and the Mekong, on the one hand, and the Nam Moun, on the other hand, and joins the Pnom Padang chain the crest of which it follows eastwards as far as the Mekong. Upstream from that point, the Mekong remains the frontier of the Kingdom of Siam, in accordance with Article 1 of the Treaty of 3 October 1893.

This would deem the temple as being located within Thai territory.

The ICJ judged on 15 June 1962 that Annex I map did not bind both parties because it was not the work of the Mixed Commission per the treaty. However, both parties adopted the map and the demarcation line in it, therefore had a binding character. The Siamese government did not disagree or object to the map, hence Thailand was bound by it, according to the legal principle “Qui tacet consentire videtur si loqui debuisset ac potuisset.” ICJ ruled by nine to three that the Temple was located in Cambodian territory and Thailand was obliged to withdraw all stationed troops there, and by seven to five, that Thailand restore to Cambodia any objects removed from the ruins since 1954.^[6]

Maritime claims

In accordance with the 1958 Convention on the Continental Shelf, of which both countries were signatories, Cambodia and Thailand announced unilateral claims to continental shelf rights in 1972 and 1973, respectively. The two overlap significantly, stemming from different determinations of the equidistant line between Cambodia’s coast and Thailand’s southern coast on the opposite side of the Gulf of Thailand, as well as from conflicting lateral boundary claims between Thailand’s Ko Kut and Cambodia’s Koh Kong. Cambodia’s claims, in particular, involve an interpretation of the 1907 treaty that scholars have described as “dubious” and “highly questionable”,^[7] which Thailand rejects.

The two countries signed a memorandum of understanding in 2001 that agreed to the joint development of the disputed area south of the 11th parallel north and delimitation of the boundary in the area north of the parallel. However, there has been little progress since.^[7]

Joint Boundary Commission

In 1997, the two countries’ governments agreed to establish a Joint Boundary Commission to oversee the demarcation of their borders, and in 2000, a memorandum of understanding was signed, laying down the framework for process.^[8]

2008 conflict

Main article: 2008–2013 Cambodian–Thai border crisis

The dispute resurfaced in 2008 when the Cambodian government was preparing to nominate the Temple of Preah Vihear as a World Heritage Site. The Thai government of Samak Sundaravej initially signed a communiqué supporting the nomination, but this was seized upon by the anti-government protest group People’s Alliance for Democracy to attack the government as part of its protests, which led to the 2008 Thai political crisis. Facing nationalistic sentiment, Samak’s government changed its stance and withdrew its support. The situation escalated with military units facing each other in the disputed areas, breaking out into armed clashes on several occasions.^[1] Disputes also arose over other overlapping border areas, including those around the ancient Khmer temples of Prasat Ta Muen Thom and Prasat Ta Krabey.

The conflict led to a request for clarification from the ICJ over the territory covered by the 1962 judgment. In 2013, the court ruled that it included the cliff on which the temple stood (referred to in the case as a promontory), but not all of the surrounding area, including the nearby hill of Phnom Trap.

2025 Cambodia–Thailand border conflict

Following a brief skirmish on the Cambodia–Thailand border on 28 May 2025, the territorial dispute between the two countries reignited, escalating into a deterioration of relations and ultimately into a direct armed conflict, which began on 24 July 2025.^[43] Since then and as of 26 July, at least 38 people have been killed in the hostilities and up to 200,000 have been displaced.^[39]

The dispute originates with the Franco-Siamese treaty of 1907 between the Kingdom of Siam (now Thailand) and the French Third Republic, the latter of which ruled over French Indochina (which included present-day Cambodia). After Cambodian independence, the disputed Preah Vihear Temple was awarded to Cambodia by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in 1962, but it and other disputed border areas remained contested. Nationalist sentiments in both countries have fueled tensions. Between 2008 and 2011, skirmishes between the two led to casualties on both sides.

According to Nathan Ruser, a satellite data analyst at the Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), the military tensions leading up to the 24 July 2025 clash between Thailand and Cambodia appear to have originated primarily from the Cambodian side. Cambodian forces had reinforced multiple positions prior to the 28 May incident and swiftly deployed strategic reinforcements afterward. His analysis found that Cambodia was responsible for 33 escalatory events, Thailand for 14, and there were 9 joint de-escalatory actions.^[44][45]

On 23 July, a Thai soldier stepped on a PMN-2 landmine in the Nam Yuen district of Ubon Ratchathani, resulting in him losing a leg. The following day, direct armed conflict broke out between the two nations, with both Cambodia and Thailand claiming to have acted in self-defence.

Background

Main article: Cambodian–Thai border dispute

The border dispute between Cambodia and Thailand has its roots in the ambiguities of the Franco-Siamese Treaty of 1904, which established certain border demarcations between the Kingdom of Siam (modern Thailand) and French Indochina (modern Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam). In 1962, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled that sovereignty over the Preah Vihear, an 11th-century Angkorian temple belonged to Cambodia, but tensions remained as the sovereignty over the surrounding territory had not been settled. Between 2008 and 2011, multiple soldiers and civilians were killed in repeated border clashes that were fueled by nationalist sentiment in both countries.^[46] In 2011, the ICJ deferred the dispute to ASEAN, but progress stalled after Thailand revoked permission for international observers.^[47] Cambodia returned to the ICJ, but Thailand took the position that delimitation must be on a bilateral basis and rejected the Court’s jurisdiction. The ICJ’s ruling thus had no practical effect.^[48][49]

Prelude

On 13 February 2025, Thai soldiers prevented Cambodian tourists from singing the Cambodian national anthem at the disputed Prasat Ta Muen Thom temple.^[50][51] On 28 May, Cambodian and Thai soldiers briefly exchanged fire between each other, resulting in the death of one Cambodian soldier. Attempts to de-escalate failed, with continued tensions leading to border checkpoint closures. Discussions between the Cambodian and Thai militaries were held on 29 May. Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Manet responded to the 28 May incident by seeking a ruling from the ICJ, saying that he did not want to see a conflict with Thailand.^[52] Phumtham Wechayachai, Thailand’s acting prime minister, said that neither side wanted to escalate the conflict and that it had been resolved.^[53]

Emerald Triangle skirmish

On 28 May, Cambodian and Thai soldiers engaged in a brief 10-minute skirmish, resulting in the death of one Cambodian soldier, Second Lieutenant Suon Roun.^[31] The skirmish occurred in the Emerald Triangle along the border of Cambodia’s Preah Vihear province and Thailand’s Ubon Ratchathani province.^[54] Both countries claimed each other was the aggressor. Mao Phalla, spokesperson for the Cambodian army, claimed that Thai soldiers were the first to open fire on Cambodian soldiers in a trench that had been in use for a while. Meanwhile, Winthai Suvaree, spokesperson for the Thai army, claimed that Thai soldiers had attempted to persuade the Cambodian soldiers to withdraw before the Cambodians opened fire.^[54][55]

Attempts to de-escalate and continued tensions

Following the clash in the Emerald Triangle, Cambodian prime minister Hun Manet responded by announcing the initiation of proceedings to submit the matter to the ICJ, while affirming he did not wish for conflict with Thailand.^[52] On the Thai side, Defense Minister Phumtham Wechayachai stated that neither side wished for the situation to escalate further and confirmed that the incident had already been resolved. On 29 May, a meeting was held between General Phana Khlaeoplotthuk, Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Thai Army (RTA), and General Mao Sophan, Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Cambodian Army, to coordinate efforts to reduce tensions and prevent future incidents.^[53]

Bilateral talks to de-escalate were held on 5 June, but failed to culminate to anything concrete. Phumtham claimed that Cambodia had rejected Thailand’s proposals and that, on 7 June, Thailand would reinforce its military presence on the border. Separately on the same date, the Thai army claimed that Cambodian civilians were making frequent incursions into Thai territory and that “these provocations, and the buildup of military forces, indicate a clear intent to use force.”^[56] On 17 June, Cambodia announced that they have banned the imports of fruits and soap opera from Thailand.^[57]

Border checkpoint closures

Thailand’s first border closure order (left) and Cambodia’s order (right)

Trat province fell under the broader context of border management reform after the Ministry of Defence delegated authority over border areas to the RTA, following a meeting of the National Security Council (NSC) held on 7 June 2025. The proposal was initiated by Paetongtarn.^[58] Under this mandate, the army issued orders to its respective field units to strictly enforce border controls, including regulating opening and closing times of checkpoints along the Cambodian frontier. Although there were no immediate official closures, this delegation allowed regional commanders to act at their discretion based on local conditions.^{[citation needed]}

An unconfirmed report on 20 June 2025 stated that the Thai Ministry of Foreign Affairs had recalled its ambassador and downgraded diplomatic relations with Cambodia to the chargé d’affaires level in retaliation. However, a separate unconfirmed report by the same publisher later stated that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs clarified it had only recalled the ambassador to Thailand to “assess” the situation.^[59]

On the evening of 21 June 2025, Boonsin exercised discretion under the powers granted through the NSC and army directives and approved the indefinite closure of the Chong Sai Taku trade relief checkpoint in Ban Kruat district, Buri Ram province, citing national security, the safety of life and property, and operational suitability for border officers.^[60] This marked the first stringent measure since the central delegation of authority and became a key turning point in policy-based retaliation between Thailand and Cambodia at the local level.^{[citation needed]}

As a result of the checkpoint closure, Cambodia issued a response the following morning. At 7 a.m. on 22 June 2025, Hun Manet announced via his Facebook page the Cambodian government’s decision to close the Ban Jup Koki checkpoint, located in Banteay Ampil District, Oddar Meanchey province, directly opposite Thailand’s Chong Sai Taku checkpoint. Additionally, Cambodia ordered the closure of another checkpoint, Chong Choum, in Anlong Veng District, Oddar Meanchey, which faces Thailand’s Chong Sa-Ngam permanent border checkpoint in Phu Sing district, Sisaket province.^[61][62] In addition to announcing the closures, Hun Manet stated on Facebook: “Starting from midnight tonight, all fuel and gas imports from Thailand will be halted.”^[63]

On 23 June 2025 at 15:20, Paetongtarn delivered a statement following a meeting to address transnational crime. She was accompanied by General Songwit Noonpackdee, Chief of Defence Forces, Police General Thatchai Pitanilobut, Inspector General of the Royal Thai Police, and other relevant agencies. The government aimed to enhance its international cooperation in tackling transnational crime, with Cambodia being a key focus as a source of such crimes affecting the global community, according to United Nations reports. Thailand deemed this a security threat and raised countermeasures across all national agencies, including strict border control across all seven provinces bordering Cambodia, and increased scrutiny over flights to Siem Reap–Angkor International Airport.^[64] The move impacted Emirates, which had recently launched its route to Suvarnabhumi Airport on 3 June.^[65]

The government also began reviewing financial routes and implementing crackdowns on transnational crime, alongside relief measures for businesses affected in the industrial, service, and agricultural sectors.^[66]

Thailand subsequently closed all border checkpoints along the Cambodia–Thailand border, under military authority granted by the NSC. At 19:10, the First Army Region issued an order affecting all checkpoints in Sa Kaeo province, suspending cross-border traffic of all vehicles and persons, except for humanitarian cases (education, urgent medical care). Later, the Second Army Region issued similar orders for Surin, Sisaket, and Buriram, maintaining the same bans but allowing agricultural and essential consumer goods to cross. Finally, the Chanthaburi and Trat Border Defense Command issued an order covering Chanthaburi and Trat, applying the same humanitarian and limited trade exceptions.^[23]

All three military orders cited national security concerns and the need to intensify the fight against transnational crimes, particularly those involving human trafficking, call center gangs, and hybrid scams, in order to protect Thai lives, property, sovereignty, and territorial integrity.^[23]

The following weeks were marked by further border incidents and continued deterioration of relations:

• 24 June 2025: The National Anti-Corruption Commission (NACC) opened a preliminary investigation into Prime Minister Paetongtarn Shinawatra concerning alleged serious violations of the code of ethics stemming from a controversial conversation with Cambodian Senate President Hun Sen regarding the Thai-Cambodian border dispute.^[67]
• 26 June 2025: The Royal Thai Navy (RTN) claimed they had shot down four unknown drones over the border in Chanthaburi province using anti-drone measures earlier in the week.^[27]
• 4 July 2025: A verbal confrontation between a group of armed Cambodian soldiers and armed Thahan Phran occurred in the disputed area in Si Saket Province, with both sides backing down without violence.^[25]
• 13 July 2025: An incident occurred at Ta Muean Thom in Surin province when a Thai tourist attacked a Cambodian soldier by punching him before running away. The perpetrator was later identified and apprehended by Thai officials.^[68]

Landmine incident

Three RTA soldiers suffered injuries^[37] during a patrol in the Emerald Triangle area when they accidentally stepped on a landmine. It was initially speculated that the mine was left over from the Cold War,^[69] however later evidence suggested that they were newer Russian PMN-2 mines.^[70] One of the injured lost one of his legs.^[71] Thailand said it was planning to take this matter to the United Nations, as Cambodia is a signatory to the Ottawa Treaty.^[72]

Heng Ratana, representative of the Cambodian Mine Action Center, claimed in a Facebook post that “In this case of new Landmines recently laid in Thailand there are a number of Social Media in Thailand have shown their armed forces did it…” and to instead take the matter to the ICJ.^[73] The RTA accused Cambodia of spreading misinformation, and that footage provided by Cambodian sources were of Thai soldiers defusing mines.^[74]

Following demining operations by the RTA, at least two additional PMN-2 mines were discovered near the original site of the explosion. The mines were described to be in “New and Ready to deploy conditions”. Additionally, the RTA has condemned this as a “Clear Violation of Thailand’s sovereignty” and called on other nations to condemn Cambodia.^[75]

On 23 July 2025, another Thai patrol group consisting of five soldiers were injured by a Cambodian mine, including one severely, losing his right leg. The incident occurred at Nam Yuen district, Ubon Ratchathani Province. As a response, the RTA announced a message that it severely condemned the “inhumane act which is a violation of Human rights and International Agreements” and that is was an “Act which is a threat to peace and stability in the border region.”^[76]

The RTA has subsequently announced it would close four border checkpoints and two temples (Ta Muen Thom and Ta Krabey) indefinitely^[77] and has put its forces in the area at combat readiness.

Later on 23 July 2025, Thailand downgraded diplomatic ties with Cambodia. Thailand recalled its ambassador from Phnom Penh and expelled Cambodia’s envoy from Bangkok.^[78]

Military conflict (24 July–present)

Both parties have attributed responsibility for initiating the hostilities on 24 July 2025 to one another.^[79] According to Thailand, at least six soldiers and 13 civilians have been killed,^[39] while 14 soldiers and 32 civilians have been injured.^[80] An additional 140,000 civilians have been evacuated.^[39] According to Cambodia’s Ministry of National Defence, five soldiers and 8 civilians have been killed, and 21 soldiers, along with more than 50 civilians, have been injured.^[81] As of 27 July, the defense ministry affirmed that 134,707 individuals have been displaced across four of the border provinces, many of whom were relocated under emergency conditions as the conflict escalated.^[33]

24 July

On the morning of 24 July 2025, Thai soldiers reported that Cambodian unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) were flying around the area in front of the Thai-administered Prasat Ta Muen Thom temple and spotted six armed Cambodian soldiers approaching the barbed wire in front of the Thai base. The RTA backed the reports stating that Cambodian troops opened fire on Thai forces roughly 200 meters east of Ta Muen Thom Temple.^[82]

On the same day, Cambodia claimed that the Thai military had launched an armed assault on Cambodian forces and forcibly sealed off public access to the Ta Muen Thom Temple.^[83] According to the spokesperson for the Ministry of National Defence, “Cambodian forces acted strictly within the bounds of self-defense, responding to an unprovoked incursion by Thai troops that violated our territorial integrity.”^[84]

At 9:40 a.m., the RTA claimed that Cambodia fired a BM-21 self-propelled multiple rocket launcher towards Prasat Don Tuan, near a residential area.^[85] At 9:50 a.m, Thailand claimed that Cambodian forces tried to gain access to a Thai territory near the Ta Kwai Temple, and they had responded with artillery fire.^[26]

At 10:58, six Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF) F-16s bombed Cambodian positions in Chong An Ma, Ubon Ratchathani province, with Thailand later confirming that Cambodia’s 8th Infantry Division and the 9th Infantry Division command posts were destroyed as a result of the strikes.^[19][26] The Royal Thai Embassy in Phnom Penh requested Thai citizens residing in Cambodia leave immediately,^[86] adding that the clashes are “likely to extend and expand”.^[87] Thailand also announced the closure of its border with Cambodia.^[88]

A gas station in Sisaket province was hit by Cambodian BM-21 Grad rockets, resulting in widespread civilian casualties, including at least eight fatalities, including an 8-year-old boy.^[89][90][91] At 11:54 a.m., Royal Cambodian Army’s BM-21 also attacked the Phnom Dongrak hospital, resulting in several injuries and the hospital being evacuated.^[92] The hospital suffered significant damage.^[93]

At 14:41, the RTA claimed they had destroyed two Cambodian tanks at Khao Sattasom.^[36] At 15:00, the Thai military launched a land and air offensive, codenamed “Operation Yuttha Bodin”, in response to ongoing clashes with the invading Cambodian forces along the border. The offensive was led by General Pana Klaewblaudtuk.^[11][12]

In the evening, Senate president Hun Sen alleged that Cambodia had “no choice but to fight back against Thailand”, adding that he participated in the military command via video link. Sen stated that he did not travel abroad as reported in Thai media, and blamed the Thai military for escalating the situation, claiming that the Thais are planning to close the entrance to Ta Muen Thom Temple.^[94][26] At the same evening, the provincial administration of Oddar Meanchey province in Cambodia stated that 5,000 citizens had been evacuated from the conflict area.^[95] At least four Cambodian civilians were wounded in the clashes.^[80]

The RTAF condemned Cambodia’s actions in using weapons to attack civilians and said it is “ready to defend the people and sovereignty from human rights violations”.^[96] It claimed to have launched at least two air strikes against Cambodian positions, with one strike confirmed by footage.^[97] It denied claims from Cambodian media outlets their F-16 aircraft were shot down by AA guns.^[98] A video was posted showing a RTA drone dropping grenades on several Cambodian ammunition dumps before catching fire and crashing.^[99]

Lieutenant General Maly Socheata stated that after a long clash with Thai forces, Cambodian troops occupied the Ta Krabey Temple, the Mom Bei area, and the Ta Moan Thom Temple.^[100]

25 July

Clashes continued in Preah Vihear and Ta Krabey areas between the two forces. Heavy artillery fire was reported in border areas of Oddar Meanchey and Preah Vihear. Cambodian media outlets claimed that Cambodia retains all strongholds across the border.^[101] According to RTA spokesperson Richa Sooksuwanon, the clashes started at 4:30 am after Cambodia initiated the fighting using small-arms and heavy weapons and the RTA responded with artillery fire. He also stated that they were conducting bomb disposal operations and retrieving bodies from Kantharalak district that had been hit by a Cambodian rocket on 24 July.^[102][103]

Acting Prime Minister of Thailand Phumtham Wechayachai stated on the second day of clashes that the conflict could turn into a full-scale war if the situation worsened.^[104] Following offers from the United States, China and Malaysia, which is the current chair of the ASEAN regional bloc to facilitate dialogue, Thailand has rejected the proposal of mediation from a third country to end the ongoing conflict, opting to resolve the situation only through bilateral talks.^[105]

The Royal Thai 2nd Army announced that Cambodia was placing its troops in close combat with Thai troops to prevent Thailand from using its artillery and air force, and Cambodia was beginning an armoured assault in Cham Tae. They also demanded that Cambodia halt military operations against Thailand and return to the negotiating table.

The Cambodian military claims that Thai forces launched multiple assaults in Khloch region as well as Takrabei and Ta Moan Temple. They stated that Thailand used cluster munitions to bomb the Kholch region as well as Choam Khsant District, violating international conventions,^[which?] and that the RTA launched offensives to take control of the Takrabei temple, but control remained with Cambodia.^[106] Both Thailand and Cambodia did not sign the Convention on Cluster Munitions.^[107]

Clashes continued on 25 July,^[80] with the report of strikes by the Thai military in the early morning hours, along with the use of F-16 fighter jets and cluster munitions on Cambodia.^[108] Thailand carried out airstrikes against 7 locations inside Cambodia. The Cambodian military stated that Thai forces, using F-16 jets, dropped bombs four times around Preah Vihear Temple, three times on Wat Keo Sikha Kiriswar and one time in the Takrabei region and shelled a primary school in Oddar Meanchey province.^[106] Four explosives landed on a primary school in Oddar Meanchey province, prompting the closure of all schools in the province.^[109] On the same day, the RTN declared Martial Law in areas bordering Cambodia in Chanthaburi and Trat provinces.^[110]

The RTN posted an announcement online in which they accused Cambodia of violating the Geneva Convention and committing war crimes by “Deliberately bombing hospitals, communities and historical sites that belong to Thailand.”^[111]

The RTA reported that around 100 invading Cambodian soldiers were killed in the Phu Phi area during their attempts to capture Hill 469.^[112]

Martial law was declared in Thailand in eight districts of Chanthaburi and Trat provinces bordering Cambodia.^[17]

26 July

The RTN claimed that Cambodian troops had launched a new offensive operation in the area of Ban Chamrak, Trat Province,^[113][114] attacking three points along the border.^[115]

At 05:10 AM, reports emerged of clashes beginning in Chanthaburi and Trat provinces. The Ekphap Village, Thmar Da Commune and Veal Veng District in Cambodia were claimed to be shelled early in the morning by Thai artillery, injuring three villagers. The attack was condemned by Cambodia as unprovoked and premeditated attack against civilians.^[116]

The RTN launched Operation Trat Phikhat Phairi 1 in response against Cambodian force’s three points attacks.^[115] By 5:40 a.m. it claimed to have pushed back the Cambodian advances.^{[113][114][115]}

On the same day, reports emerged that 10 artillery shells fell into Lao territory during a clash between Thai and Cambodian forces, causing damage. The RTA accused Cambodia of being the perpetrator.^[117] The RTA later said it was unclear which party the shells came from, while the Cambodia’s Ministry of Defense denied the allegations, accusing the Thai military of spreading false and misleading information online.^[118]

In the early morning, Thailand reportedly pushed back Cambodian forces and captured Phu Makeua^[119][120] and Major general Duong Somneang, a commander of Cambodia’s 7th Division, was killed by an artillery strike at the Chong Ta Thao–Phu Ma Kua area on this day.^[6][8]

UAV sightings were reported in Khlong Yai in Thailand. Authorities urged the public to report any suspicious activities.^[121]

At 8:20 AM, the RTN deployed a task force of four vessels as part of the operation in the Koh Kood District and Ban Hat Lek. The force includes fast attack gunboats and patrol gunboats.^[122]

The RTAF conducted airstrikes using two F-16 and two Gripens covering Cambodian strategic locations in Ta Kwai Temple in Surin Province.^[123]

Thailand reported capturing two areas in Ta Phraya District and two areas in Khok Sung District from Cambodian forces. Thailand intensified its attacks on several Cambodian border areas. Cambodia initiated defensive measures against Thailand.^{[124][125][126]}

In the evening, the Thahan Phran reported to have successfully captured Ta Krabey temple from Cambodia, losing three soldiers in the process.^[127]

27 July

Reports emerged from Cambodia that the Thai military continued shelling into Cambodian territory targeting religious and civilian infrastructure, despite phone calls between both leaders and U.S. President Donald Trump the previous night.^[128][129] As the fighting intensified, Cambodia continued to report Thai shelling and bombings on Oddar Meanchey province’s capital of Samraong and other civilian locations.^[130] Reports by Thai sources released photos of Cambodian artillery damage in a clinic in Si Saket Province.^[131]

At 4:30 AM, Thailand reported that Cambodian troops fired at Thai forces at Prasat Ta Kwai.^[132][133] At 6:40 AM, Cambodian troops launched assaults with heavy weaponry against Thai forces in Phanom Dong Rak District, Surin Province.^[134] According to Thai media outlets, Cambodia fired BM-21 Grad rockets into the Ta Muen Thom Temple.^[135] In the early morning, Thai sources claimed Thailand recaptured Chong Ahn Ma.^[136]

On the same day, 12 bodies of Cambodian soldiers were repatriated, according to the RTA.^[137][138]

In the afternoon, the RTA claimed to have destroyed a Cambodian PHL-03 rocket artillery system.^[139] Two RTAF squadrons of four F-16 jets bombed strategic areas in Ta Muen Thom and Ta Kwai.^[140]

28 July

As Cambodia and Thailand prepare to meet for ceasefire talks in Malaysia, Cambodian sources said that the Thai military increased their offensive in the early morning hours, targeting Cambodian key military positions along the border.^[141] Whilst Thai media reported that clashes broke out at around 3 AM in Surin province.^[142] Later on in the morning, Surin province was declared a War Disaster Zone.^[143][144]

Cambodia accused Thailand of using chemical weapons in the morning attack, which was denied by Thailand, which described the claims as “groundless and reflects a pattern of disinformation.”^[145][146]

A few hours before the ceasefire, Thai sources reported very heavy fighting along the frontline, particularly in Ta Krabey temple and Chong Ahn Ma.^[147] Thai sources also claimed that the Body Guard Headquarters (BHQ), Hun Sen’s personal bodyguard unit, had become involved in combat at Ta Krabey.^[148]

29 July

The RTA accused Cambodia of violating the ceasefire.^[149] Later, it released images and videos of captured Cambodian prisoners of war (POW), claiming to have captured 18 in total. The videos showed the POWs being fed water and food. The RTA claimed that it “continues to uphold human rights principles, international humanitarian law, and the obligations of Thailand under the Geneva Conventions regarding the proper treatment of enemy soldiers and the deceased.”^[150]

In the evening, the RTA and Thai sources reported that Cambodia violated the ceasefire agreement and launched another assault around Chong Ahn Ma and Phu Makuea area.^[151]

Negotiations

On 2 June, Hun Manet announced that the Cambodian government would file a complaint to the ICJ, stating his hope that Thailand would agree to let the issue go to the ICJ and prevent any armed confrontations.^[56] Thailand, however, does not recognise the jurisdiction of the ICJ. Phumtham instead said any issues should be resolved through bilateral negotiations.^[152]

On 24 July, after armed conflict had broken out, Hun Manet announced his letter to the President of the United Nations Security Council, requesting an urgent meeting of the Security Council to stop “Thailand’s aggression against Cambodia’s sovereignty.”^[153]

On 25 July, the Thai Ministry of Foreign Affairs sent a letter to the United Nations Security Council to clarify that Thailand has clear evidence that Cambodia has invaded its sovereignty and requested the UNSC President to circulate the letter to all member states. They also issued a statement that Cambodia’s actions are violations of international law and have been repeated since Thai soldiers stepped on landmines on 16 and 23 July. The Thai government called on Cambodia to take responsibility for the incidents and immediately cease attacks on military and civilian targets which violates several Geneva Conventions acts.^[154][155]

Later on 25 July, Thailand rejected mediation offers from the United States, China, and Malaysia (the current ASEAN chair), stating that they “would like to have [the] matter resolved bilaterally”.^[156][105] On the same day, Hun Manet revealed that Cambodia and Thailand had initially agreed on a ceasefire proposed by Malaysian prime minister Anwar Ibrahim, but Thailand had retracted an hour before the proposed ceasefire came into effect at midnight on 24 July.^[157] That same day Cambodia’s ambassador to the United Nations, Chhea Keo, called for an immediate and unconditional ceasefire with Thailand.^[39]

On 26 July, U.S. President Donald Trump said that he held a phone call with both Thai and Cambodian prime minister to mediate both countries. Trump also stated on his Truth Social account that both sides agreed on ceasefire while Acting Prime Minister Phumtham Wechayachai stated that it will require sincerity from the Cambodian side.^[158] On 27 July, Phumtham expressed appreciation to the concern and support by Trump and other similar sentiments but insisted on preferring a bilateral dialogue with Cambodia, and does not wish for third-party intervention in resolving the ongoing border conflict.^[159] Secretary of State Marco Rubio also said the State Department sent delegates to Malaysia to observe the peace negotiations.^[160]

On the evening of 27 July, the Malaysian foreign minister confirmed that both Cambodian and Thai leaders will meet in Malaysia the next day for ceasefire negotiations mediated by Anwar Ibrahim.^[161]

On the evening of 28 July, Thailand and Cambodia agreed to an unconditional ceasefire, scheduled to come into effect at midnight, thus ending the conflict.^[162] Phumtham, along with Foreign Affairs Minister Maris Sangiampongsa and General Natthaphon Narkphanit, met with Hun Manet at 3PM (UTC+8) earlier in Putrajaya in talks initiated under the mediation of Anwar,^[163] with both U.S. and Chinese envoys attending.^[164] Participating in the discussions as co-facilitators were U.S. Ambassador to Malaysia Edgard Kagan and Chinese Ambassador Ouyang Yujing.^[165]

Casualties and impact

According to sources, about 138,000 civilians living in Thailand have been evacuated, making it more than 200,000 displaced in both countries.^[166] Reports also said people are fleeing from other towns close to the border, as civilian infrastructures are targeted like hospitals and gas stations.^{[167][87][168]} In Cambodia, 35,000 people fled their homes.

At least 38 people were killed during the clashes. This included eight civilians and five soldiers in Cambodia, and 13 civilians including children and six soldiers in Thailand. In Cambodia, at least 50 civilians and more than 20 soldiers were injured, while in Thailand, 29 soldiers and 30 civilians were injured.^[169] On 26 July, Cambodia announced Maj. Gen. Duong Somneang, commander of the 7th Division, was killed by an artillery strike at the Chong Ta Thao–Phu Ma Kua area.^[170]

According to Thai sources, about 20 hospitals in Thailand suffered damages totaling 285 Million Baht (US$8.78 Million). Among these, Phanom dong Rak hospital was damaged most, saying that repairs could take “years”.^[171]

Apart from the frontline, Cambodia’s Ministry of Labors and Vocational training has urged brands, buyers, and consumers of Thai products and services to pay attention to the increasing violence and harassment being suffered by Cambodian migrant workers in Thailand and play an active role in protecting the rights and well-being of migrant workers.