Myanmar Exodus: The Perilous Journey and Plight of Myanmar Refugees and Migrants in Malaysia
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Myanmar Exodus: The Perilous Journey and Plight of Myanmar Refugees and Migrants in Malaysia
The lives of Myanmar nationals in Malaysia are increasingly precarious. Following the military junta’s enactment of the conscription law on February 10, 2024, political, military, and economic instability within Myanmar has worsened, leading to severe livelihood and employment challenges. Coupled with daily arrests by the military, young people are increasingly desperate to flee the country by any means necessary.
Aung Moe (pseudonym), an engineer and participant in the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM), is among those attempting to escape Myanmar due to these anxieties. He has been dismissed from his job and blacklisted, making it impossible for him to obtain a passport. As an engineer, Aung Moe, around 30 years old, falls under the “skilled worker” category, making him eligible for conscription until age 45.
Photo : SCMAM, Myanmar migrants crossing the Thai-Malay Border on foot.
With continuous recruitment for military service in Insein, Aung Moe decided to flee to Thailand or Malaysia. He connected with a smuggling broker and travelled by car from Yangon to Myawaddy. After arriving, he spent a night at the smuggling broker’s shelter. The next morning, he was ferried across to Mae Sot, Thailand. “From the broker’s hut on the Thaungyin River bank, I had to get up at 2 AM and go down to the creek. From there, we crossed the river by boat. I paid 750 Thai Baht for the crossing,” Aung Moe recounted. After staying in Mae Sot for several months, Aung Moe continued his journey to Malaysia.
The Treacherous Mae Sot-Bangkok Jungle Route
Aung Moe then linked up with a broker who specialised in overland routes from Thailand to Malaysia. Following the broker’s instructions, he took a one-hour bus ride from Mae Sot to a designated location. He waited two nights at the broker’s house because there weren’t enough people for the crossing. Once a group of about 35 people had gathered, the broker began transporting them to Bangkok, Aung Moe explained.
The journey from Mae Sot to Bangkok was arduous, involving an all-night trek through the mountains. “We started walking at 8 PM, rested briefly at a hillside hut around 2 AM, then were driven to another spot by a logging truck, and then walked for another two hours,” Aung Moe said. After two days of alternating between walking and riding through dense jungle, he finally reached Bangkok.
The Overland Journey from Bangkok to Kuala Lumpur
Upon arriving in Bangkok, Aung Moe was received by a Thai broker on the outskirts of the city and transferred overnight to a Burmese-speaking broker. He spent one night at the Burmese broker’s house. The next evening, they were transported by a pre-arranged vehicle to the Thai-Malaysia border.
At the border, different brokers, responsible for specific sections of the Thai-Malaysia border route, awaited them. They were then handed over to individuals believed to be local farmers or hunters familiar with the jungle paths along the border. These individuals guided them through rubber plantations, palm oil plantations, and dense forests on foot. To avoid detection by border patrol, they had to walk in complete darkness during the border crossing.
Photo : SCMAM, Myanmar migrants crossing the Thai-Malay Border on foot.
“When we were about 3 to 4 miles from the borderline, we couldn’t use lights. We had to climb over barbed wire fences, and it was raining, so people were slipping and falling into ditches. We walked blindly through the night,” Aung Moe described. He also noted that along the Myanmar-Thailand-Malaysia border, passengers are often transferred from one broker to another, sometimes marked with a string tied around their hand or a soft pen mark on their bodies.
Human Trafficking Brokers and Networks in Three Countries
The increasing number of people fleeing Myanmar has fueled the growth of commercial human smuggling operations. These trafficking routes primarily originate in Myanmar and extend through Thailand to Malaysia. The main routes identified by smuggled individuals are Tachileik-Mae Sai, Myawaddy-Mae Sot-Bangkok, and the Three Pagodas Pass, with the latter being the most frequently used.
According to the UNODC’s Observatory on Smuggling of Migrants First Edition, published in March 2024, Myanmar is a central hub for human smuggling, accounting for 30% to 60% of human smuggling in Southeast Asia. Along these routes, brokers (those who arrange illegal mass transport) share responsibilities based on their location, collecting fees from migrants and redistributing the money among themselves. Those unable to pay the full amount upfront are often forced into debt, with principal and interest repaid over three, six, or twelve months.
Source : UNODC
The fees charged by brokers have surged from approximately 1 million Myanmar Kyats before 2021 to around 5 million Kyats in 2024. Crossing from Myanmar to Thailand costs over 20,000 Thai Baht, while the journey from Bangkok, Thailand, to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, costs between 3,000 and 3,500 Malaysian Ringgit. The total cost from Yangon to Malaysia ranges from 4,500 to 5,500 Ringgit. If children or elderly individuals are involved, the price for the Myanmar-Malaysia journey can reach up to 10,000 Ringgit. “When I travelled, there were about 60 Rohingya families, including elderly people and children. The brokers must have made a lot of money from them,” Aung Moe stated.
Human smuggling brokers and trafficking rings operate in multi-layered networks, with each level connecting to the next. The income generated from transporting individuals is then distributed among these levels. An unnamed broker in Malaysia with eight years of experience estimated there are about four or five levels in the hierarchy. “We only know the person directly above us. We don’t know who or where the people in the higher levels are,” he said. Brokers typically earn a net profit of 1,500 to 2,000 Malaysian Ringgit per passenger.
Billy, a freelance researcher residing on the Thai-Myanmar border, reported rumours of police and forestry officials’ involvement in these activities. “We hear news that senior police officers or police personnel, as well as forestry officials, stationed at the border, might be involved. This can be seen as bribery, but there’s also a form of beneficial bribery for grassroots people,” he remarked.A 31-year-old CDM worker employed at a construction site in Johor, Malaysia, near the Malaysia-Singapore border, stated, “We don’t want to live under military rule anymore. Armed revolution isn’t feasible for us, so this was our last resort.”
The Plight of Trafficked and Smuggled Individuals
Most people fleeing Myanmar use unregulated border crossings (colloquially known as “underground routes”) to escape areas under the military junta’s control. Smugglers often use agricultural vehicles, cargo trucks, logging trucks, and tractors for mass transportation. However, for crossing strict checkpoints and urban areas, new luxury cars and high-end passenger vehicles are employed. These vehicles are often overcrowded, leading to suffocation and even death during transit. In some areas along the Myanmar-Thailand and Thai-Malaysia borders, boats and motorboats are also used.
“When we travelled, they used fertilizer sacks to cover the car completely. The smell of fertilizer was overwhelming, and it was hard to breathe. I had to subtly poke a hole in the sack to let air in; otherwise, I could have died,” Aung Moe recounted.
Photo: SCMAM – Myanmar migrants inside a smuggling vehicle.
If caught by Thai police when entering Thailand through smuggling routes, individuals are often repatriated to Myanmar and handed over to the military junta. This has led to an increase in forced conscription of young people returned to the junta’s control.
Along the smuggling routes, makeshift jungle resting spots often lack shelter, food is scarce, and individuals suffer from exhaustion and psychological trauma. There have been instances where people smuggled through these routes have died mid-journey due to lack of oxygen in overcrowded vehicles, or from vehicle accidents.
On April 13, 2024, Dr. Khual Sian Tung (also known as Dr. Tu Tong), a CDM participant fleeing Myanmar for Malaysia, died mid-journey in Karen State. Due to difficulties in transporting his body back to his hometown in Chin State, he was buried in Karen State. In the third week of October 2024, three out of 26 Rohingya individuals illegally entering Thailand to go to Malaysia died inside a human trafficking vehicle. The smugglers abandoned the bodies and injured individuals in a jungle area in Chumphon province, Thailand.
A Karen ethnic individual from Dawei commented on these incidents, noting that they are due to the irresponsibility of smugglers and drivers. He also mentioned that some individuals disappear without a trace in the jungle, losing contact with their families. “I’ve been in Malaysia for over a decade, but such incidents were rare before. After the military coup, we’ve heard of more than four or five such cases. The main reason is the brokers’ lack of responsibility. It’s not that these things never happened before, but the frequency has increased,” he said.
Sometimes, if the route is clear, smuggled individuals can reach their destination by simply changing cars without walking. However, when routes are tightened, they may have to walk for two or three days through dense forests, rubber plantations, cassava farms, and palm oil plantations, as recounted by a Muslim individual from Paung Township, Mon State. “Our journey was very difficult. The route from Mae Sot to Bangkok was the worst; we crossed many mountains. The guides in the jungle even carried guns.”
On the other hand, cross-border human smuggling has become a lifeline for those fleeing military oppression in Myanmar. Ma Thinzar Shun Lei Yi, a Magnitsky Human Rights Award winner and Myanmar democracy activist, commented, “Most people view human smuggling as an illegal activity. However, given the situation in Myanmar, these illegal cross-border transportation services have become life-saving. Therefore, irresponsible and criminal human traffickers should be prosecuted.” She stressed that in combating human trafficking and smuggling, authorities should consider both the “life-saving” aspect for those fleeing persecution and the criminal element of irresponsible and fatal acts.
Responses from Authorities in Each Country
The human trafficking and smuggling issues along the Myanmar-Thailand-Malaysia border have worsened due to instability within Myanmar. As the military junta’s control diminishes, cross-border crimes at the nation’s borders continue to rise. This has exacerbated the growth of online financial scams, forced labour, exploitation, sexual exploitation, illegal gambling, and the proliferation of weapons into criminal gangs.
Concerns are growing within ASEAN and China, and the military junta struggles to even reach border areas, let alone address these issues. Similarly, the National Unity Government (NUG) is far from being able to resolve these matters. Regarding the highly publicized “Zhàpiàn” (online scam) issue on the Thai-Myanmar border, the NUG announced on January 20, 2025, its intention to combat cybercrime and human trafficking. While the NUG statement indicates a willingness to cooperate with ethnic revolutionary forces, ASEAN regional countries, and UN agencies, the effectiveness of these efforts remains to be seen.
The military junta’s state-owned newspapers have also engaged in propaganda, accusing ethnic armed groups in border regions and Thailand (referred to as “the other country” in the newspaper) of involvement in the “Zhàpiàn” issue in Shwe Kokko (KK Park).
As Malaysia assumes the rotating ASEAN chairmanship in 2025, it has advocated for cross-intelligence sharing with regional countries in regional meetings, seemingly aiming to control and manage growing cross-border crimes. During the Asia International Security Summit and Expo 2025, Malaysian Home Affairs Minister Mr. Saifuddin Nasution Ismail stated on January 21 that “increasing cross-border crimes, human trafficking and smuggling, drug trade, cybercrime, piracy, illegal trade of environmental resources, and arms smuggling are threatening the stability of the ASEAN region.”
The Malaysian daily newspaper, The Sun, reported that fencing and increased security measures are continuing at border checkpoints along the Thai-Malaysia border. Additionally, both the Thai and Malaysian governments are aware of the continuous cross-border movements of Rohingya minorities fleeing Myanmar and using Thailand as a transit point.
Ai Lwin, a Chin ethnic leader advocating for Myanmar workers and refugees, stated that despite accelerated efforts by Malaysia and Thailand to stabilise their borders, instability in Myanmar, job scarcity, and livelihood difficulties mean that these issues will likely persist, making complete eradication challenging. (Ai Lwin has received a commendation for social welfare from Dato’ Mohd Yusri Binti Othman, the Police Chief of Kuantan Police Station, Pahang, Malaysia, and also works as a Myanmar-Malay translator in Malaysian courts.)
Protection by UNHCR Malaysia and the Myanmar Embassy
According to the latest figures released by the Malaysian government and UNHCR in January 2025, there are 192,420 refugees and asylum-seekers in Malaysia. Of these, 170,920 are from Myanmar, including 111,980 Rohingya refugees, 27,790 Chin ethnic refugees, and 31,140 other Myanmar refugees. These figures only include those registered with the UNHCR; the Myanmar community in Malaysia estimates that hundreds of thousands more are unregistered or awaiting registration.
Photo: SCMAM – Myanmar migrants waiting for vehicle transfer.
The majority of the approximately 170,000 Myanmar refugees and asylum-seekers in Malaysia are believed to have arrived via the Myanmar-Thailand-Malaysia “underground” human smuggling routes. Holding a UNHCR registration card in Malaysia generally offers protection from arrest (except for criminal offences), makes release easier if arrested, and improves employment opportunities. Holding a valid Myanmar passport with a valid visa also protects from arrest.
Obtaining a passport (PJ) at the Myanmar Embassy in Kuala Lumpur costs around 450-500 Ringgit (approximately 500,000 Myanmar Kyats) and takes about 5-6 months. However, those who wish to obtain a passport through brokers or an express service can pay around 2,000 Ringgit (over 2 million Myanmar Kyats) and receive a PJ passport within a week, according to applicants.
Despite the Myanmar Embassy issuing passports and embassy staff allegedly earning extra income, the Myanmar community in Malaysia reports that the embassy takes no responsibility for Myanmar refugees in Malaysia. When illegal Myanmar workers are arrested and deported by Malaysian police and immigration authorities, the arrested individuals themselves must purchase their plane tickets and present them to the Myanmar Embassy and Malaysian Immigration offices.
A young man applying for a new PJ passport to work legally in Malaysia commented, “To get a passport at the embassy, we have to save up the net income after working for three to four months. 500 Ringgit is a lot for us to scrape together. The embassy staff take our money, but they can’t even keep the embassy toilets clean; they’re really dirty. Don’t even talk about them helping us when we’re in trouble.” (The Myanmar Embassy in Malaysia, now under military control, has suspended new passport registrations for undocumented citizens, a move understood to be linked to the military’s forced conscription law within Myanmar.)
From Human Smuggling to Human Trafficking
Some young people fleeing Myanmar are unable to afford the upfront travel costs (broker fees) and arrive in Malaysia with the understanding that they will work to repay their debt. When these individuals fall into the hands of brokers, they are sometimes sold or “entrusted” to restaurants, agricultural farms, factories, and construction sites for a period of six months to one year, for a sum ranging from 10,000 to 20,000 Malaysian Ringgit. Those sold by brokers may be confined to their workplaces and work without pay until the agreed period expires or their debt is settled.
Salai James Bawi Thang Bik, Chairman of the Alliance of Chin Refugees (ACR), clarified the distinction between human smuggling and human trafficking. “Human smuggling (migrant smuggling) and human trafficking (trafficking in persons) seem similar but are actually different. In human trafficking, the victim usually needs to be rescued and may be exempt from criminal charges. In human smuggling, both the broker is prosecuted, and the smuggled individual can also be charged with illegal border crossing.”
Ai Lwin stated that many Myanmar nationals in Malaysia have been prosecuted and sentenced for human trafficking and smuggling, with thousands more facing charges. “I, myself have assisted in human trafficking cases where individuals were sentenced to five to seven years in prison. Some judges show leniency in these sentences. Many people are also charged under Section 6(1)(c) of the Immigration Act for illegal entry,” Ai Lwin added.
There are also brokers who arrange for groups of young Myanmar women to work in KTVs and massage parlours, although it is unclear if the individuals themselves consent to this. A young man from Kyauktaw, Rakhine State, who arrived in Malaysia via an “underground” route in mid-January 2025, said, “About 10 women from Kachin State who came with me were taken by a broker to work in KTVs and massage parlours. They knew beforehand that they would be doing that.”
Malaysia’s Anti-Trafficking in Persons and Anti-Smuggling of Migrants Act 2007 (as amended in 2022) states in Section 12 of Part 3: “Any person who traffics a non-child or a person who is physically or mentally disabled or otherwise unable to fully care for or protect himself shall be guilty of an offence and shall, on conviction, be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding twenty years and shall also be liable to a fine.” Section 26(A) of Part 3(A) states: “Any person who engages in illegal recruitment of migrant workers shall be guilty of an offence and shall, on conviction, be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding twenty years or to a fine or both.”
Malaysian authorities are actively cracking down on undocumented foreign workers, with a record number of Myanmar nationals being arrested. Those arrested are prosecuted and continuously deported back to Myanmar. A CDM industrial engineer who was arrested and deported to Myanmar recounted, “When we were caught, we had to admit in court that we had committed illegal border crossing. After that, we were punished and sent back to Myanmar.” He added that human trafficking cases can take a long time to resolve in court.
Hope for Repatriation for Myanmar Nationals in Malaysia
Undocumented workers and border crossers continue to face special operations and arrests, with many Myanmar nationals being detained. The Myanmar Embassy in Kuala Lumpur has suspended new passport (PJ) applications for undocumented Myanmar workers in Malaysia. The Myanmar Embassy in Malaysia released a statement on February 10, 2025, indicating increased cooperation with Malaysian Immigration detention centres.
Recent Myanmar news media reports indicate that Myanmar workers repatriated from Malaysia are being arrested and forcibly conscripted into military service under the conscription law. Similarly, as Malaysia assumes the ASEAN chairmanship in 2025, it remains to be seen how it will handle regional situations.
With the military junta discussing elections and peace in Myanmar, anti-military coup forces have placed positive hopes on the Malaysian government. Myanmar nationals living illegally in Malaysia are hoping for protection from the UNHCR, and registered refugees with UNHCR are awaiting resettlement to third countries.
Photo: SCMAM – Myanmar migrants waiting for vehicle transfer.
As the conflict in Myanmar shows signs of prolonging, there are growing concerns that undocumented workers in Malaysia who do not receive protection from UNHCR or the Myanmar Embassy may find their hopes of returning home fading. There are also discussions among Myanmar refugees in Malaysia who had “American Dreams” about whether those dreams are now distant, especially after the inauguration of Donald Trump as the 47th President of the United States.
Samchomun
